Small Towns vs. Big Cities free essay sample

You can go off of your back porch and see for miles, there are not any high rise apartments of fifty story buildings blocking your way. You can always find a creek to go skip rocks off of, and you will not have to drive very far for that matter. You can also breathe in small towns. You can take in deep breathes of air without getting choked up on smog or rancid exhaust emissions. Small towns may not have all of the amenities to offer someone as much as a large city would, but if you are humble you can go to the great internet and have it at your door on the next business day. Small towns also have the family owned grocery stores. They do not try to swindle anyone out of their money, and most of them know your first name and will stop and talk to you. We will write a custom essay sample on Small Towns vs. Big Cities or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In fact in a small town you often know everyone’s name and what they have been up to, good or bad, and can sit and have a peaceful conversation with them. In small towns you can always see the same old men sitting eating breakfast and drinking coffee at the local diner every morning. You can see people actually working in the field to put food on the table for their families. See them doing the ten dollar jobs that are precious in small towns but get laughed at by city folk.

What Is NATO A Short Introduction

What Is NATO A Short Introduction SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’re thinking about taking the AP U.S. History or AP World History exams, it’s important that you have a good understanding of the major events and organizations that have shaped the nation- and the world. One critical topic that you should know about is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. If you’ve watched the news (or listened in history class!), you’ve probably heard the term NATO mentioned quite a bit. But what is NATO, exactly? And why is NATO important? In this short but sweet guide, we’ll give you all the need-to-know information about NATO, like NATO’s definition, an overview of NATO history, and a look into how NATO works today. We’ll also give you a short list of additional resources that you can check out for evenmoreinformation. So let’s get started! What Is NATO: Definition and Overview So what is NATO, exactly? The general purpose of NATO, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, starts with NATO’s definition: NATO a multi-national political and military alliance dedicated to the collective security and defense of its member nations. NATO operates on the belief that a strong international alliance is critical to maintaining peace. Beyond helping member nations with issues of security and stability, NATO also provides support to the United Nations help with international peacekeeping operations, including missions that combat terrorism, protect civilians, and promote world peace. Originally founded on April 4th, 1949 when its 12 founding members signed the North Atlantic Treaty, NATO is now comprised of 29 members from around the world and has political partnerships with 21 other nations. Together, all of the NATO countries work together to â€Å"guarantee the freedom and security† of its member nations through a combination of international diplomacy, conflict prevention, and- if necessary- military intervention. This picture was taken outside of NATO's second headquarters in Paris, France in the 1950s A Glimpse Into NATO History: NATO’s Formation To fully answer the question â€Å"What is NATO?†, it’s important to understand the historical and political context behind NATO’s formation. The End of World War II and the Rise of the American Superpower World War II was perhaps the most defining moment of the 20th century. The Second World War pitted the world’s greatest powers against one another through two opposing military alliances: the Axis and the Allies. The United States- along with France, Poland, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and 21 other nations- banded together to fight against the Axis powers and Hitler’s plan to create a new world order. The war, which started on September 1, 1939, would rage for six long and bloody years before its conclusion on September 2, 1945. Historians estimate that the war resulted in 85 million casualties, including the 6 million Jews who were killed during the Holocaust. The end of World War II caused the global political winds to shift overnight. Most of Europe, which was already struggling after World War I, ended World War II economically devastated. Not only was the population decimated, 70 percent of Europe’s industrial infrastructure had been destroyed during the conflict. This caused Europe’s economy- including the economies of the world’s biggest political empires- to collapse. As a result, the United States suddenly found itself positioned as one of the world’s leading economic and political superpowers for three major reasons. First, the country’s late entry into the theater limited World War II’s economic toll. In fact, quite the opposite happened. Because the United States supplied the Allied forces with food, weapons, and military equipment, World War II created a booming wartime economy for the States. The Second World War was such a boon to the American economy that it actually ended the Great Depression! Second, the United States saw almost no action on its own soil (with the exception of the Attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941). That meant that America didn’t have to undertake the massive, and expensive, rebuilding effort of its Western European allies. Third, and perhaps most importantly, the United States bankrolled the reconstruction of Europe...for a profit, of course. American Corporations involved in the war effort saw ballooning profits because of the reconstruction efforts, which were bolstered by The 1946 Marshall Plan, which pledged an additional $13 billion dollars to Europe in aid. So while the United States was committed to helping their fellow Allied powers rebuild, it wasn’t afraid to build its own economy at the same time. The Soviet Union, the Cold War, and Communism But the United States wasn’t the only emerging world power after the Second World War. Despite fighting alongside one another during World War II, the alliance between the Soviet Union (or USSR) and the United States started to deteriorate during the post-war reconstruction period. As World War II began winding down, the communist Soviet Union- led by Joseph Stalin- began its own imperialist expansion. The Soviet Union had managed the eastern front of the World War II battle theater, and as the Red Army beat back Germany, set up its own occupation of formerly German-occupied states like Poland and Czechoslovakia. And rather than relinquish these nations at the close of the war, the Soviet Union maintained control and installed pro-communist regimes. The Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe, along with the USSR’s blockade of West Berlin in an attempt to gain political control of post-war Germany, convinced the United States that the Soviet Union had become a threat to democracy on par with the now-defeated Nazi Germany. Thus, the U.S. government adopted a policy of containment in order to halt the spread of communism into Western Europe. Additionally, the U.S. revealed the Truman Doctrine in 1947, which was a foreign policy that promised American aid to any democratic country that was threatened by outside totalitarian regimes. While the United States and its allies started to view the Soviet Union as an emerging communist threat, the Soviets had also soured on their alliance with the West. The USSR had suffered catastrophic casualties during World War II. The country had lost 11 million soldiers and suffered between 7 million and 20 million civilian casualties. The Soviet economy was also struggling. Beyond spending $125 billion on wartime efforts, the USSR’s economy had simultaneously shrunk by 20 percent between 1941 and 1945. The USSR had sacrificed both manpower and resources to defeat Nazi Germany, and it was sorely in need of financial assistance during post-war reconstruction. The United States was willing to offer the Soviets financial aid under The Marshall Plan, but the USSR wasn’t happy with the stipulations. First, the plan offered aid to Germany, which Russia disagreed with. The USSR, which now occupied Eastern Germany, wanted total control over whatever funds Germany received as part of The Marshall Plan. Second, The Marshall Plan required countries that accepted aid to adopt elements of democratic governance, including instituting principles of a free market economy. Stalin suspected- and rightly so- that The Marshall Plan was designed to weaken the USSR’s hold on the newly-acquired Eastern Bloc countries and, in turn, stymie communist expansion. As a consequence, Stalin required the Eastern Bloc nations, which were devastated by the war, to reject The Marshall Plan and instead instituted The Molotov Plan, which pledged to rebuild Eastern Europe. This tension led to both sides drawing a line in the sand. The Soviets and the United States positioned themselves on opposite sides of an ideological battle between communism and democracy, which marked the beginning of The Cold War. This is the NATO Authentication certificate that allsignatoriesreceivedafter signing the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949.Archive/U.S. Diplomacy Center Signing the North Atlantic Treaty The writing was on the wall: the Allied powers had defeated one totalitarian enemy only to suspect that another in the form of Soviet Russia was waiting on their doorstep. The United States feared the outbreak of another major war as tensions with the USSR escalated, and President Harry S. Truman believed that a strong political alliance was critical in containing the Soviet threat. As a result, Truman called for the formation of a defensive alliance of countries bordering the North Atlantic. The foundational idea behind this alliance was to serve as a deterrent against the USSR’s expansion into Western Europe. To do this, the signing nations agreed to a system of mutual defense. If one country was attacked by an outside power (like the USSR), it would be perceived as an attack against all of the alliance’s member nations. That would allow the United States to step in and help its democratic allies beat back a Soviet incursion, which in turn would prevent the encroachment of communism into Western Europe. This alliance was formalized with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington D.C. on April 4, 1949. These 12 originating countries, all of which were part of the Allied forces during World War II, created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. Master Sgt. Scott Wagers/Defense Department NATO’s Requirements for Membership In 1949, NATO limited its membership to 12 allied nations that shared a border with the Atlantic Ocean. But as the world became more connected politically and economically, NATO recognized the need to expand its membership. As of today, NATO membership is now open â€Å"any other European state in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area.† As a result, NATO membership as more than doubled since the alliance’s inception and now includes 29 member nations. (You can find a complete list of member countries a little later in this article!) NATO has expanded over the past 70 years, but membership criteria remains strict. Admission into NATO is outlined in Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty. Here’s what it says: The Parties may, by unanimous agreement, invite any other European State in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area to accede to this Treaty. Any State so invited may become a Party to the Treaty by depositing its instrument of accession with the Government of the United States of America. The Government of the United States of America will inform each of the Parties of the deposit of each such instrument of accession. Article 10 puts three stipulations on aspiring member states. First, new members must agree to all the elements of the North Atlantic Treaty, including its commitment to democracy and collective defense. Second, only European states can become members. And third, in order to join an aspiring nation must meet all the criteria set forth by current member states, which is summarized in a Membership Action Plan (MAP). NATO’s Membership Action Plan The MAP is the backbone of NATO’s admissions process and while it’s customized to fit each potential country, the MAP also requires each applying nation to report on its progress in each of five areas each year (until admission is granted or denied). These five areas are: Democracy: Willingness to settle international, ethnic or external territorial disputes by peaceful means, commitment to the rule of law and human rights, and democratic control of armed forces Finances: Ability to contribute to the organization's defense and missions Cooperation: Devotion of sufficient resources to armed forces to be able to meet the commitments of membership Security: Security of sensitive information, and safeguards ensuring it Compatibility: Compatibility of domestic legislation with NATO cooperation In addition to these general areas, each member nation is allowed to present additional criteria member nations must meet to gain admission. That means that each MAP is tailor-fit to each applying country; no two membership plans are alike! When a country receives a MAP, NATO provides feedback and advice to petitioning countries and evaluates their progress after their annual presentation. Once a country has met all the admissions criteria outlined in its MAP, NATO gives it an invitation to begin accession talks. NATO is selective about countries it gives a MAP to; in fact, countries must be nominated for admission into NATO by a current member nation before a MAP is ever considered! As of 2019, two countries- Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia- have a Membership Action Plan in place. Beyond being selective, NATO’s admissions process is a long one. How long, exactly? The three countries most recently admitted into NATO (Albania, Croatia, and Montenegro) took seven to eight years to complete their Membership Action Plans! Colin Watts/Unsplash Funding NATO Since NATO is a collective, each member nation is expected to contribute to the alliance financially. There are two ways member nations do this: through indirect and direct contributions. Indirect Contributions These are the largest pool of contributions and come when member countries volunteer resources to help NATO enact a policy or support a mission. For example, an indirect contribution would be a country contributing troops, equipment, or supplies to support one of NATO’s crisis management missions. Additionally, the country- not NATO- bears the cost for this donation. (In other words, countries donate these things at their own expense!) Direct Contributions Unlike indirect contributions, direct contributions are made financially. In other words, these are liquid funds that are used to support projects that benefit all member nations collectively. Each member nation is required to meet some form of its funding requirements through direct contributions. This is because there are some missions, like diplomatic or aid endeavors, that are best handled through immediate spending. How Much Do Countries Donate? So, how much is each country expected to pay into the collective NATO pool? Well, that depends. NATO uses a cost-sharing formula that accounts for each nation’s Gross Domestic Product, or GDP. This is calculated by percentage. In 2014, in an effort to increase NATO’s defense efforts, the NAC agreed to require each country to donate two percent of their GDP to NATO’s operating budget through indirect and direct contributions. This helps keep things fair. If NATO set a specific dollar amount that each country had to meet, smaller countries might struggle to meet their financial obligations. This way, each country can contribute based on how their economy is performing, which helps keep the financial burden of NATO membership equal. European NATO member nations are in navy blue Current NATO Member Nations NATO was originally founded by twelve nations that shared borders with the Atlantic Ocean, NATO membership has grown to include 29 nations from all around the world. Here’s a list of every nation currently in NATO along with their entrance date. (We’ve bolded the names of the founding 12 nations for easy reference, too.) Albania (2009) Greece (1952) Poland (1999) Belgium (1949) Hungary (1999) Portugal (1949) Bulgaria (2004) Iceland (1949) Romania (2004) Canada (1949) Italy (1949) Slovakia (2004) Croatia (1949) Latvia (2004) Slovenia (2004) Czech Republic (1999) Lithuania (2004) Spain (1982) Denmark (1949) Luxembourg (1949) Turkey (1952) Estonia (2004) Montenegro (2017) The United Kingdom (1949) France (1949) Netherlands (1949) The United States (1949) Germany (1955) Norway (1949) NATO's official flag NATO’s Purpose Today Although NATO was formed as a deterrent for the USSR’s expansion and the spread of communism, NATO didn’t disband when the USSR collapsed in 1991. Instead, NATO continues to fulfill the NATO definition of defending its members and supporting democracy to this day. In a 2010 Strategic Concept agreement, NATO states its three core tasks as collective defense, crisis management, and cooperative security. These three goals form the backbone of NATO and steer its decisions. In the next section, we’ll take a look at each of these three pillars more closely. Collective Defense First and foremost, NATO serves as a defensive alliance founded on upholding democratic values and principles. Its primary purpose is creating a network of collective defense, which means that member nations work together to ensure that all countries in the alliance are secure from outside threats. NATO does this by sharing knowledge, financial, and personnel resources with member nations. This includes sharing intelligence, but it also involves more practical tactics like bringing countries’ military technology up to date. While NATO’s first goal is to resolve international conflicts diplomatically, the alliance is also set up to use military force to defend allied nations when necessary. This aspect of collective defense (also known as NATO’s Article 5) and was the major reason NATO was founded in 1949. This principle states that if one nation is attacked by an outside force, the alliance will view it as an attack on every member nation. In other words, attacking one member of NATO means that all the countries in the alliance will respond. This allows bigger, more powerful countries in the alliance to protect its smaller NATO allies. In turn, smaller nations give NATO better tactical positioning in relationship to potentially adversarial global powers (like Russia and China). By essentially surrounding potential adversaries with allied nations, NATO disincentivises territorial expansion. Crisis Management Because NATO is committed to maintaining global peace by promoting security, the organization is also committed to responding to global crises before, during, and after they arise. This includes a mix of military and non-military tactics which are tailored to each crisis, which in turn dictates the scope and scale of NATO’s response. NATO is also positioned to help other political allies, like the United Nations, in their responses to global crises. Most recently, NATO implemented the UN’s resolution to protect civilians in Libya during its civil war. Finally, because crisis management supports NATO’s commitment to security, NATO helps its member nations and political allies train in crisis management techniques. This ensures that NATO can respond quickly with an international effort whenever an international crisis arises. Cooperative Security NATO’s last, and newest, core task is cooperative security. Introduced in 2010, this task focuses on creating an extended network of cooperation between member and non-member countries to tackle global problems quickly and efficiently. To do this, NATO focuses on strengthening its relationships with partner nations. These are countries who aren’t part of NATO but work with NATO to tackle security problems in their region and across the world. As of 2019, NATO works with 40 other nations in some capacity. The goal of these partnerships is to share information, knowledge, and other resources in order to create more stability and security across the globe. Additionally, NATO makes sure that all of its member nations have fairly equal military and technological capabilities. This also includes training: all member nations have access to NATO trainers to make sure countries have the knowledge and skills they need to respond to security threats. By making sure all member nations are capable partners, NATO as a whole becomes stronger. A meeting of the North Atlantic Council in 2010Wikimedia NATO’s Command Structure NATO nations are committed to working together as part of the alliance and work together on a daily basis. In terms of the alliance’s operational structure, NATO is split into two major categories: the NATO diplomatic delegations and the military representatives. Let’s take a closer look at both to see how NATO nations work together to make decisions and work together toward their common goals. NATO Diplomatic Delegations and the North Atlantic Council The diplomatic delegations represent the political arm of NATO. Each NATO member nation sends a delegation to represent their country to NATO’s headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. These representatives attend around 6,000 meetings a year! The most important element of NATO’s political arm is the North Atlantic Council, or the NAC. This council oversees the political and military processes that affect the alliance. To this end, the NAC serves as the political decision-making body of NATO. In other words, any NATO decision- whether that’s an initiative, resolution, or military action- is voted on by the NAC. To keep representation equal, each member nation has one seat on the NAC, which meets once a week. And just like collective defense, the NAC operates through collective decision making. Unlike the U.S. legislature, where decisions are approved by majority vote, the NAC only implements policies that are â€Å"agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord.† In other words, the NAC makes decisions through consensus, and those decisions represent the will of every member country on the council. The diplomatic branch of NATO has one other notable subcommittee called the Nuclear Planning Group (NPG). Like the NAC, every NATO member nation (with the exception of France, which decided not to participate) has representation within the committee whether they have nuclear capabilities or not. The group’s goal is to monitor nuclear forces around the globe while shaping NATO’s own nuclear policies in regards to arms control and nuclear proliferation. Thus, the NPG deals specifically with nuclear issues and reports to the NAC, who makes the final decision on anything the Nuclear Planning Group puts forward. The NATO Military Committee delivers remarks to the press Dominique A. Piniero/U.S. Department of Defense Military Representatives and the Military Committee Because NATO is a defense alliance, NATO has a military branch of operation, too. This branch is comprised of three operational groups: the Military Committee (MC), Allied Command Operations (ACO), and Allied Command Transformation (ACT). Let’s take a look at all three groups and their unique responsibilities. The Military Committee This committee advises the NAC on military policy and strategy and is charged with enacting all of NAC’s military-based decisions. Its main job is to oversee NATO’s military operations and translate the NAC’s decisions into military direction. Similar to the NAC, each nation has one representative that sits on the Military Committee. These seats are held by each member state’s Chief of Defense (or their proxy) and meet at least once a week to discuss ongoing operations and ongoing security concerns. Additionally, the Military Committee oversees the other two groups of the military branch: Allied Command Operations and Allied Command Transformation. Allied Command Operations NATO’s ACO is headquartered in Mons, Belgium at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), and it’s run by the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR). The ACO is responsible for the planning and execution of all Alliance operations and reports to the Military Committee. So once the NAC decides to use military force for crisis management, the control of the operation is turned over to the ACO, which runs the operation from beginning to end. To do this, ACO has three overlapping operational levels: strategic, operational, and tactical. This allows ACO to run complete military operations, including the command of both NATO and joint military forces (which are military forces â€Å"donated† to NATO by member nations for use in NATO-sanctioned operations). But as the world changes, so has the ACO’s role in NATO. The newest responsibility of ACO was assigned by the North Atlantic Council in 2018. After their meeting in Brussels, the NAC decided to establish a Cyberspace Operations Centre dedicated to defending member nations against cyber attacks from outside forces, too. Allied Command Transformation NATO’s ACT is the second branch of military command in NATO and was formed in 2003 to help NATO address future threats. It is located in Norfolk, Virginia and is run by the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation, or SACT. Like the ACO, the SACT reports to the Military Committee and is responsible for making sure that ACT and NATO are preparing for modern and future threats to the security of its member nations. Put another way, the goal of ACT is to plan for the future. Its job is to lay the groundwork for NATO’s military forces to adapt quickly to changing threats and prepare for security issues looming on the horizon. This includes reporting to the Military Committee and advising them on current tactics and future problems. Additionally,ACT is charged with bringing all member nations up to speed in terms of their military capabilities. Not only do they provide training to member nations’ military forces, they serve as a sort of lobby group to persuade member nations’ governments to invest in security and military preparedness, too. A Spanish F-18 takes off on aNATO bombing run during the Bosnian War Dixie Trawick/U.S. National Archives Key Moments in NATO History Ever since its founding in 1949, NATO has been a key actor in global political, military, and peacekeeping efforts. Here are some of the most pivotal moments in NATO’s seventy-year history. 1991: Collapse of the USSR In 1991, the USSR officially disbanded, granting each of its formerly-sovereign nations back their independence. This brought NATO’s original operating mission (and The Cold War) to an end; after all, NATO was originally created to stop the USSR and the spread of communism. Instead of disbanding, NATO nations decided to continue NATO’s mission of promoting peace, freedom, and collective security. 1995: The Bosnian War The Bosnian War began in 1992 with the breakup of Yugoslavia. As the situation deteriorated, the United Nations called for a no-fly zone to be set up over Bosnia and Herzegovina. NATO stepped in to manage the operation on behalf of the UN and took its first military action when NATO shot down four Bosnian Serb aircraft that were violating the no-fly zone. 1999: Kosovo Intervention The Kosovo War began in 1998, and soon after the fighting began, reports began to trickle in about the displacement of more than 250,000 Albanians. The United Nations responded with a resolution calling for a ceasefire. When the resolution failed to stop the conflict, NATO issued an â€Å"activation warning,† which meant NATO was prepared to use military force to mitigate the conflict. When peace talks deteriorated, NATO launched an air campaign that included bombing of key targets. NATO also played a key role in negotiating the end of the war and helping restore stability by stationing 30,000 troops in Kosovo. 2001: September 11th, 2001 The terrorist attacks that brought down the Twin Towers in New York were the first foreign attack on U.S. soil since the bombing of Pearl Harbor during World War II. The attacks led NATO to invoke Article 5- which states that an attack on one ally is an attack on all- within 24 hours. In doing so, â€Å"NATO members showed their solidarity toward the United States and condemned, in the strongest possible way, the terrorist attacks against the United States.† 2003: War in Afghanistan As a result of Article 5, NATO nations rallied to support the United States’ conflict in Afghanistan. NATO agreed to eight official actions/missions, which included the deployment of troops, military support, and supplies to the region. In 2003, NATO also agrees to take command of the ISAF, or International Security Assistance Force, in Afghanistan, which marks the first NATO crisis management mission outside of the North Atlantic region. 2011: Libya Intervention The Libyan Civil War begins when Libyan protests against their totalitarian government bubble over into a full-blown revolution. The United Nations called for a ceasefire and authorized military measures to protect Libyan civilians. NATO began enforcing the UN’s resolution in March 2011, which included creating a no-fly zone over the country and 9,500 air strikes. After the rebel’s victory, NATO agreed to provide training for the new Libyan government and consult on security issues. Mahendra Kumar/Unsplash Resources for Further Reading Want to learn even more about the Cold War and NATO history? We’ve found four super helpful resources just for you! NATO’s Official Website NATO’s official website offers a thorough overview of NATO’s history along with its current policies, operations, and strategic missions. This is a great place to start if you want up-to-the-minute news about NATO’s current actions and international positions. (Don’t forget to check out NATO’s official Facebook, Youtube, and Twitter accounts, too.) It also has a fantastic chart that explains NATO’s operating structure! The U.S. State Department’s NATO Overview The U.S State Department’s overview of America’s involvement with NATO offers a more U.S. centered view on NATO’s formation, including the signing of the North American Treaty. For a short NATO history overview with a more American focus, this is a good place to start! Defense of the West by Stanley Sloan If you’re wanting a more comprehensive, in-depth look at the history of NATO from its formation to modern day, Stanley Sloan’s book should be your first stop. Sloan, a Senior Fellow in the Scowcroft Center at the Atlantic Council of the United States, dives into NATO’s definition, founding principles, and continued role on the world stage. He also discusses NATO’s future, especially as its member nations face new and complicated challenges to their security. Understanding NATO in the 21st Century edited by Graeme P. Herd and John Kriendler If you really want to dig deeper into NATO’s role in the 21st century, look no further than Graeme P. Herd and John Kriendler’s book. This book compilesessays from many different academics and historians to give readers a better, more thorough sense of NATO’s current role in global politics and the current challenges facing the organization. This is definitely an academic book, but the essays offer interesting new insights into NATO’s evolving role on the global stage. What’s Next? NATO is just one pivotal part of modern history...and it’s just one topic you might find on an AP History exam. To get a better understanding of U.S. history, check out some of these books on our AP History Exam reading list. Of course, one of the best ways to learn more about U.S. history is to make sure you’re taking history classes. Most high schools offer a variety of history classes, so make sure you’re taking the right ones for you. AP exams aren’t the only specialized tests available for college-bound high school students hoping to earn some college credit. Did you know that the SAT offers subject exams, too? This article will teach you more about the SAT subject tests and help you decide whether you should take them.

Violent Video Games Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Violent Video Games - Essay Example It is important to note that besides social networking sites, violence video games have the greatest following among the youth. However, critical consideration of the facts surrounding the act is important to establish ways of managing it so that the future society is saved of devastating socio-economic results. There is a raging debate on the issue of violence video games on the young minds but a lot of focus is evidently put on the negative side. It is important to carry out investigative research that explores the advantages as this equally provides measures of dealing with it. The young generation is subjected to unstable emotional behavior and most of their actions are rarely guided by logics (Kassin, et al. 97). They lack good understanding between reality and fiction which is important when it comes to dealing with the violence video games. This is an age bracket with a lot of energy where physical might and battle for social supremacy reigns and playing such violence video ga mes holds a lot of impact. In-depth analysis of merits and demerits of this popular entertainment is the best avenue to establish it effect on the structural and functional concept relating parents to children. There are observed advantages from the video games which have set its industry bursting with young clients. It is important that the positive side of such a game is also taken into consideration. It would be important to highlight such advantages. Violence video games improve the ability of an individual to concentrate. The mental engagement required while playing such games boosts the focus of the young people and this helps them to learn how to capture detail and master concepts in other social aspects of life like class work. There is a sense of accomplishment when the young people take the game. It is common to come across children saying how they enjoyed the game and this is a pathway to internal spirit of achieving goals in the society (Kassin, et al. 57). Most of the y oung people in the contemporary society have several issues to deal with due to the pressure of changing socio-economic and political environment. This means that they need some form of stress relief which such violence video game with the fantasies in them provide. Some of the content of the violence video games is composed of historical activities and this offers lessons to kids about some significant facts which sum up to sharpen their overall cognitive skills. Research indicates that cognitive ability of the young people improves as they engage their mental and physical efforts towards achieving specific goals. Language development is equally derived partially from the communication experienced by the players of such violence video games. Tactics of winning requires repeated trials by the young players and this boosts their overall learning process. The increasing exposure of the young children to such violence video games has several disadvantages to the society at large. The c ontent of the violence video games includes uncensored sexual acts which intoxicates the children’s morals and may affect their overall productivity in the society. There is an observed increase in childhood aggression which may outplay the emotional stability of the young people. This is worsened by increasing addiction which deepens the defilement of the young people’s mind and lack of concentration on more important issues (Kassin, et al. 37). Much time for learning especially homework and household chores

Adapting to Changes and Situational Leadership Assignment

Adapting to Changes and Situational Leadership - Assignment Example The researcher further delivered some of the insinuations, findings and study limitations of integrated leadership roles in the public subdivision. One of the strengths presented in the article is increased morale due to better communication whereby the leader needs to constantly remain aware of the needs of his followers. Pauliene (2012) argues that’s successful leaders should examine the ability of employees and communicate effectively. This can enable the leaders to lead the followers successfully; hence enabling them to perform their task effectively. Secondly, situational leaders should develop a positive and sizeable effect on the performance level of the federal agencies; hence achieving success (Fernandez, Cho and Perry, 2010). However, situation leadership creates confusion; thus it is likely to impact the work performance. Lastly, leaders might lose credibility and trustworthiness by their followers; hence poor work performance in the public sectors. One of the examples of that applies to situation leadership is an example of a director that was working in one the HR department in one of the clothes industry in U.S. The director was involved in a situation whereby he was about to leave for a holiday and his task was to be handled by an experienced assistant director. The assistant was very familiar with his responsibilities; thus he was excited to perform the task. However, instead, the director could trust the knowledge and skills of the assistant director; he decided to spend hours drafting a detailed list of work tasks for the assistant director. Therefore, in this situation, the work will be done perfectly, but the director damages a good relationship with the assistant director due to lack of trust and not being confidence towards the assistant director. Therefore, based on Hersey and Blanchard theories, the situation leadership applies to the above example of the director and his assistant. This is because situational leadership according to Hersey and  Blanchard focus on adapting managerial styles vital for meeting the distinct requirements in a given situation (Gong, Jia-Chi, and Jiing-Lih (2009).  

Factors Influencing Supply and Demand of Food Research Paper - 1

Factors Influencing Supply and Demand of Food - Research Paper Example It highlights the main reasons for some of these factors such as food scarcity, prices and volatility. Food scarcity is a significant issue affecting economies globally as they strive to maintain healthy communities. As population increases, pressure on arable land has mounted leading to reduced soil fertility and pasture for livestock production. Potential land for food production is no longer available for farming as a human settlement has continued to expand. FAO (2012) postulated that a 60% increase in food production will be required to sustain the global population by 2050. Many other forces are influencing the availability of food. Climate change and global warming have led to negative changes that have occurred in areas that formed part of the global food basket but no longer support farming as a result of reduced rainfall and desertification. Desertification in Africa, Asia and Southern Australia, arid areas of Spain, Northern and Southern America has caused significant food shortages. Poor farming methods, overgrazing and deforestation of vast areas have accelerated desertif ication to the current crisis leading to dire food shortage globally (Kendall & Pimentel, 2010). Among other dynamics, demand for food is influenced by socio-economic factors that influence people’s food habits. For example, improved incomes globally as more people are able to participate in gainful employment has increased the demand for expensive food such as fast foods and chicken that require more energy to produce compared to the conventional foods. Culture and religion influence what people believe to be edible and hence lower or increase demand for particular foods (Kendall & Pimentel, 2010). Nutzenadel & Trentmann (2008) argue that malnutrition and global food scarcity can be curtailed by discouraging prohibitive beliefs and promoting acceptance of a wide variety of food materials  especially animal proteins that are not eaten by members of certain religious and cultural groups such as pork consumption among communities in the Middle East and beef consumption among the Hindu. Many insect species have been found to be important protein sources but people have not accepted them as food sources (Brouver & Staveren, 2006).  

Encoder Viterbi Matlab

Encoder Viterbi Matlab Implementation of Convolutional Encoder and Viterbi Decoder Using Matlab and FPGA Abstract Channel coding is widely used in digital communication. By using channel encoding methods we can minimize signal noise and signal interference in our system. These techniques also utilize less bandwidth for error free transmission. In our project we have implemented convolutional encoder and viterbi decoder for channel coding. Convolutional encoding is vastly used for error correction in digital communication. We have implemented these techniques on matlab and performed a lot of simulation to check their performance. Chapter 1 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM INTRODUCTION Early communication was based on implicit assumption that messages signal is continuous varying time signal waveform. Such continuous time signals are referred as analog signals and there corresponding information sources are called analog sources. Analog signals are transmitted using carrier modulation over communication channel and accordingly demodulated at receiver. Such communication system is called analog communication systems. In digital transmission analog source output is converted to digital form. Message can be transmitted using digital modulation and at receiver demodulated as digital signal. The basic feature of digital communication system is that during finite interval of time it sends a waveform from possible number of waveforms. Important measure of system performance in digital communication systems is probability of error. 1.2 WHY DIGITAL COMMUNICATION Digital communication is preferred over analog communication because digital circuits have a less probability of distortion and interference than analog. Digital circuits are reliable than analog and have low cost. Digital hardware is more flexible to implement than analog. In digital signals time division multiplexing is simpler then FDM in analog signals. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION In digital communication system functional operations performed at both transmitter and receiver should be expanded to add messages signal bias at transmitter and message signal synthesis or interpolating at receiver. Additional functions include redundancy removal and channel encoding and decoding. 1.3.1 Source Nature Information is knowledge. Information can be of two types either analog or digital. We can collect information through listening or watching. Receiver newer know what it will receive in advance but only when some source generates an output towards it. The main responsibility on any communication channel is to send error less information towards receiver. 1.3.3 Source Encoder/Decoder What is source encoder? It is a technique which changes an analog signal into sequence of bits. This sequence of bits that is produced can also be used for the reconstruction of the signal. These bits contain information about the original signal. If we use this encoding technique it can also be helpful in appropriate bandwidth utilization. The sequence of bits is such that it can be used for data compression. 1.3.4 Quantization It is a process in which we sample the amplitude of a analog signal. Irreversible mechanism in which we erradicate redundant bits is called QUANTIZERS. The disadvantage of quantization is that it introduces noise in the sampled signal. Whereas while sampling distortion donot occur. But inspite of all that, quantizers and quantization is still widely used in determining the bit rate. And in any coding procedure of speech, amplitude quantization is the most important step. X8 X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 Figure 1.2: 8-level quantization 1.3.5 Modulation and Demodulation What is modulation and demodulation? Modulation is a process in which a baseband signal is mixed with a carier and converted into bandpass signal. And demodulation is a process in which original signal is recovered from modulated signal. And modulator and demodulators perform the above information. The modulator changes the signal into the form representing the required information. And reverse operation is performed by demodulator. The purpose of these devices is to produce and convey messages with minimum bit error rate. NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Noise refers to something which is always present in the entire communication world. Noise is something that can be created or produced from variety of possessions. If noise is present in any system it makes the system ambiguous and less efficient. It also makes our receiver capability less efficient. And therefore also confines the transmission rate. Noise can be minimized by efficient designing technique which is not desired through different methods such as filtering. Noise which is caused by the thermal motion of electrons in all dissipative resistors is called thermal noise. These electrons are also responsible for thermal noise as a zero mean Gaussian random process. CHAPTER 2 CHANNEL CODING 2.1 INTRODUCTION Channel coding is used in communication system to improve the signal reliability in communication systems. By performing channel coding we can protect our signal from different types of noises and distortion. These methods of signal processing are tools for accomplishing desirable system tradeoffs. By using large scale integrated circuit and high speed digital processing methods it had made possible to provide as much as 10db performance improvement at much less cost. Shannon showed that by the addition of redundant bits to source information we introduce a method to minimize error in channel without disturbing information transmission rate provided that the information rate is less than channel capacity. Average number of information bits per unit time can be reduced by using function of the speech code. Minimum number of information bits should be transmitted. The input to encoder is the output of speech code. Radio link performance is improved by using Channel coding in mobile communication by the addition of redundant bits to source information. At the transmitter channel code maps the digital information which is produced by a data source into a form that can be decoded by the receiver with minimum errors. Channel coding mechanism insert noise to the codes in a controlled manner by adding extra bits so that the receiver can do detection and correction in a noisy channel. Channel codes which are produced are classified as block codes and convolution codes The hamming distance (minimum), dmin of a code is used as criteria for determining error correction ability. The minimum hamming distance is defined as smallest value of d. if minimum hamming distance is dmin ,(dmin -1)bit errors can be detected and we correct the integer [(dmin-1)/2] bit errors .raw data transmission rate can be reduced additional coded bits. Using Error-Correction Codes These codes are very useful to use.Without implementing these codes in our communication system our data delievered will be very noisy and corrupted.Below is the graph which showz comparison between uncoded and coded data error performance. Chapter 3 CONVLUTIONAL CODING INTRODUCTION TO CONVOLUTIONAL ENCODING The idea is to make all code word symbols to be the weighted sum of the input message symbols. And that is similar to the convolution used in linear time invariant systems where the output of system is found, if you know about the input and impulse response. So in convolutional encoder we usually get the output of the system, by convolving the input bits. Basically, convolutional codes do not reduce much noise as compared to an equivalent block code. In most of the cases, they generally offer more simple implementation upon block code of same power. The encoder is a simple circuit which contains the memory states and feedback logic, normally supported by XOR gates. The decoder is usually implemented in software. The Viterbi algorithm is the most favourable algorithm which is used to decode convolutional codes. It is found that they generally give good results in environment of lower noise. OVERVIEW OF CONVOLUTIONAL CODES Convolution codes represent one method within the general class of codes. Channel codes which are also called error-correction codes allow reliable communication of an information sequence over that channel which adds noise, bring in bit errors, or otherwise deform the transmitted signal. These codes have many applications which include deep-space communication and voice band modems. Convolutional codes are commonly prà ©cised by the following three parameters; (n, k, m). n = output bits k = input bits m= memory registers L=constraint length The quantity k/n which is called code rate is a measure of the capability of the codes. Usually range of n and k is from 1 to 8 and range of m is from 2 to 10 and the code rate from 1/8 to 7/8 except for deep space application where the code rates as low as 1/100 or even longer has been engaged. Often the manufactures of the Convolutional code chips specify the codes by the following parameters n, k, L. The quantity L is the constraint length of the code and is defined by Constraint length, L = k*(m-1). The constraint length L stand for the bits in the encoder memory that effects the production of n output bits. The constraint length L is also indicated by the letter K. 3.2.1 CONVOLUTIONAL ENCODING ENCODER STRUCTURE Convolutional codes protect by adding unwanted bits as any binary code. A rate k/n Convolutional encoder develops the input series of k-bit information symbols through one or more binary shift registers. The convolutional encoder calculates every n-bits representation (n > k) of the output series from linear process on the present input symbol and the contents of the shift register(s). Therefore, a k-bit input symbol is processed by a rate k/n convolutional encoder and computes an n-bit out put symbol with every shift update. Figure shows a non recursive convolutional encoder having rate of 1/2. For the encoder above, shows state variations and resulting output code words. Sequence U for the message sequence m=1 1 0 1 1 Solution Table 3.1 Branch word at time ti u1 u2 State at Time ti+1 State at Time ti Register Contents Input Bit mi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 U = 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 POLYNOMIAL REPRESENTATION Sometimes, the encoder characters are characterized by initiator polynomial. Representation of an encoder can be done with a set of n initiator polynomial, one for each of the n modulo-2 adders. Each polynomial is of degree K-1 or less and tell about the connection of encoding shift register to that modulo-2 adder as the connection vector normally do. The coefficient of all the terms is either 1 or 0 of the degree polynomial depending upon whether connection exists or doesnt. For example in figure 4.1, we can write the generator polynomial g1(X) for the upper connections and g2(X) for the lower connections as follow. g1(X) = 1+X+X2 g2(X) = 1+ X2 The output sequence is found as follow U(X) = m(X) g1(X) interlaced with m(X) g2(X) Let the message vector m = 101 as a polynomial is represented as m(X) = 1+ X2 Then output polynomial U(X), of the figure 4.1 encoder can be calculated for the input message m is given as under. m(X) g1(X) = (1+ X2 )( 1+X+X2) = 1+X+X3+X4 m(X) g2(X) = (1+ X2 ) (1+ X2 ) = 1+ X4 m(X) g1(X) = 1+X+0X2+X3+X4 m(X) g2(X) = 1+0X+0X2+0X3+ X4 U(X) = (1, 1) + (1, 0) X + (0, 0) X2 + (1, 0) X3 + (1, 1) X4 U = 11 10 00 10 11 We demonstrated the encoder with polynomial initiators as also described for cyclic codes. Graphically there are three ways in which we can look at the encoder to gain better understanding of its operations. These are (a) State diagram (b) Tree diagram (c) Trellis diagram 3.2.2 STATE DIAGRAM Convolution encoders are finite-state technology. Hence state diagram offers significant insight into their performance. The states showed in the diagram symbolize the probable contents of right most K-1 stages of register, and paths represent the output symbols coming from such state changes. The states of registers are nominated as a=00, b=10, c=01 and d=11. There are only two conversions originating from every state, corresponding to two probable input bits. Output branch word is written next to every path state that is linked with the state transition. In below figure, we have used the complete line which denotes a path linked with input bit, 0 and a doted line is to a path with an input bit, 1. Observe that it is impossible in a single transition state to move forward from a given state to any random state. 3.2.3 THE TREE DIAGRAM One cannot easily use the state diagram for tracing back the encoder transitions as a function of time because it has only one disadvantage i.e. it cannot maintain the history record while the state diagram fully characterize encoder. State diagram is the advance form of tree diagram; it adds the dimensions of time than tree diagram. As the custom these trees also traverse from left to right at each bit inputs and each branch of the tree is describing the output branch. Following rule can be used to find the sequence of codeword; for an input bit of zero, its related branch word can be obtained by advancing to subsequent rightmost branch in the up direction. For an input bit of 1, its branch word can be obtained in the down direction. If we assume that the major contents of encoder are zeros, the diagram shows if initial input bit to the encoder is set to zero, the output will be 00 and if the initial input bit is a one, the output will be 11. Also if the initial bit input is one and next input is zero, the next output bit is one; the next output branch word is 01.By following these steps we observe that input bit stream 11011 traces bold line on the tree. This path matches to the output codeword sequence 1101010001. CHAPTER 4 VITERBI DECODER 4.1 VITERBI DECODING ALGORITHM This algorithm was revealed by Viterbi in 1967. The Viterbi algorithm performs maximum likelihood decoding. By taking benefit of the structure in the code trellis it also reduces the computational load. The benefit of Viterbi decoding is that its difficulty is not a function of the information of symbols in the code word sequence. The algorithm includes calculating a distance, or measure of resemblance b/w the received signal, and every the trellis paths entering each state at the same time. Those trellis paths that could not possibly by candidates for the maximum likelihood choice, viterbi algorithm removes them from consideration when two paths are entering the same state then the one having the best metric is selected and that path is called the surviving path. This choice of surviving path is carry out for every state. The complexity of the decoder is reduced by the remove paths with maximum unlikeliness. The decoder continues in this way to go forward into the trellis and making decision by eradicating the slightest likely paths. In fact in 1969, Omura also demonstrated that the Viterbi algorithm is maximum likelihood. The objective of selecting the optimum path can be articulated by selecting codeword which as minimum distance metric. 4.2 EXAMPLE OF VITERBI CONVOLUTIONAL DECODING Binary Symmetric Channel is assumed for simplicity thus hamming distance is a suitable measured distance .A similar trellis which we are using in encoder can also be used in decoder, as shown in figure 4.5. We set up at time t1 in 00 state referring to trellis diagram. Flushing in encoder is very important because it tells the decoder about the starting state because in this example there are only two likely transitions departing any state and not all the branches need to shown firstly. The full trellis structure starts after time t3. Central idea following the decoding procedure can be demonstrated by seeing the figure 4.1 encoder trellis in contrast with the figure 4.2 decoder trellis. It is suitable at each time interval, for the decoder to label every branch with hamming distance b/w the received input code symbols and the current transition word matching to the same transition at encoder end. The example in figure 4.2 shows the equivalent codeword sequence U, a message sequence m, and a noise distorted received sequence Z = 11 01 01 10 01 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. . Code symbols that will come from the encoder output which are results of state transitions are the encoder branch words As the code symbols are received they are accumulated by the decoder and are labeled on trellis branch. That is for each and every branch of the decoder trellis it will be marked with a matrix of likeliness i.e. Hamming distance. From the received sequence Z, we observe that code symbols received as the convolutional output at time t1 are 11, shown in figure 4.2. With the aim of labeling the decoder branches at time t1 with the least Hamming distance metric, we glance at the encoder state diagram figure encoder trellis. At this point we observe that a state 00-00 transition gives an output branch word of 00, but we are receiving 11. Consequently, on the decoder trellis we label 00—00 transition with hamming distance of 0. Observing encoder trellis, a state 00—10 transition yields an hamming distance of 1 with the output of 11. Hence, on the decoder trellis, we also label the state 00—01 transition with a Hamming distance of 0. So, the metric entered on the decoder trellis branch tells compares the corrupted and correct distances received associated with the branch transmitted with the branch word. To all intents and purposes, these metrics describes a correlation. The decoding algorithm finds the minimum distance path in order to correctly decode the data. The foundation of Viterbi decoding is that between any two paths which are ending up to the same state, path with minimum hamming distance will always be selected and other one will be discarded. Its example can be seen in figure 4.3 below. 4.3 Decoder Implementation In the decoding context the transitions during any of the time interval can be combined into 2^v-1 disjoint cells, where each cell is dissipating four of the possible transitions, where v is called the encoder memory. 4.3.1 Add-Compare-Select Computation Starting with the K=3, 2—cell example, figure 4.4 below shows the logic unit that corresponds to cell 1. The logic executes the special purpose calculation called add-compare-select (ACS). The state metric is calculated by adding the previous-time state metric of state a, to the branch metric and the previous-time state metric of state c, to the branch metric, this fallout in two possible path metrics as candidates for the new state metric. These two results are compared in the logic units of figure 4.4. The biggest likelihood (smallest distance) of the two path metrics is saved as the new state metric for the state a. Also shown in the figure 4.4 is the cell-1 add compare select logic that tells the new state metric and the new path history. This ACS process is also performed for the paths in other cells. The oldest bit on the path with the smallest state metric forms the decoder output. 4.3.2 Add-compare-select as seen Trellis Consider the same example for describing viterbi decoding. The codeword sequence was U = 1101010001, the message sequence was m = 11011 and received was Z = 1101011001. Figure 4.5 give a picture of a decoding trellis diagram. Most important point in the decoding through trellis tree is its hamming distance. This is the distance between received code symbols and their equivalent branch words. Trellis tells the value at every state x and for each time to time t1 to t6. We do ACS operation when we have two transitions ending up to the same state. And we get these types of situations after t4 transition and after that. For instance at time t4 the value for the state metric is obtained by incrementing sate t3. Similar operation is done for the state t2. The ACS process chose the minimum hamming distance path which also has maximum likelihood. The paths with minimum hamming distances are shown with bold lines and the paths with minimum likelihood are shown with faded lines. Trellis trees a re always observed from left to right. At any time when we want to check our decoder output we initiate with those states which has smallest paths. If we look at the figure below we can see that at time t6 path with minimum hamming distance has survived with distance =1. CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION METHODOLOGY 5.1 MATLAB SIMULATION 5.1.1 CONVOLUTONAL ENCODER VERTERBI DECODER We have implemented Convolutional encoder and viterbi decoder as source code. Matlab code also compares our viterbi decoder output with the built in decoder output by comparing bit error rates in our project. Making Matlab code and generating different code words for different symbols using convolutional codes and then decoding them with errors using viterbi decoder was the first step in our project. We have taken input from the user which will be coded by the convolutional encoder. Here we have generated random bits. Then the coded data will be decoded at the viterbi decoder. At the decoder side we have corrupted different bits by simply inverting them manually. Just to check what will be the bit error rate if different bits will be corrupted. Then we have compared our built in decoder function with our decoder code efficiency. In the receiver side we have used viterbi decoding algorithm to decode the transmitted signal. After these two steps (encoding and decoding) original data is obtained, which have errors if low SNR is used. 5.2 VHDL SIMULATION Our second step regarding to this project was to make synthesizable code of encoder and decoder in vhdl. For this we have used modelsim. Here we have implemented same logic as we used in matlab. 5.3 FPGA In the end we have burned our code in field programmable gate array. We made a synthesizable code in vhdl of our matlab logic and implemented on fpga. MATLAB RESULTS Here is the result of our matlab codes. If one bit is corrupted data_str = 111011010101000001111101101010101000101100111011010001000100011001111111110101100010101111100101010011101011101001000110 conv_code_str = 100110010001000010001000111100000011001010100100000100100010011000101100101000010111100110010001000010110011111100111011011101011111001010101010111001001000000111001110011000011010110111111000110010111101110100100001110100101111111100110101 msg_rec = 11101101010100000111110110 101010100010110011101 10100010 0010001 10 011 1111111010110001010111110 0101010 01110101110 1001000110 Message/ber retrieved with Verterbi_link_cont1 ber = 0 Message/ber retrieved with Vitdec ber =0 If two bits are corrupted data_str = 100010111000000011101000101100010010100110101101110110110010001100010010010011111001100001101000001001111000101011011101 conv_code_str = 100011001110011110011100011000001101111100101100100000010111010110111110010011110101010000010100000001000101011101111110101011010111010110111110100110111101110010011111001111000011001100101100011011101111000010011100100000100001001001100100 msg_rec = 10001011100000001110100010110001001010011010110 1110110110 0 10 001100010 010010011111001100001101000 001 0011110001 010110 11 1 0 1 Message/ber retrieved with Verterbi_link_cont1 ber = 0 Message/ber retrieved with Vitdec ber = 0.2667 if 3 bits are corrupted data_str = 101100011101110010110100100110010010001010111010011011111000000000110110000110101111100000100010100011001001111110001100 conv_code_str = 100110010111010011100100000111111110011011001011100101110101100000111110101101100010011000010010100011010001110100011100011110000000101011000101101110110101010110011010111001000000100101001110010101001101000001101111000100101001101101010111 msg_rec = 1110011111 01110 0 1 0 11010010011011 0 01010101011101 000 111 011 10 00100000110110100110111010100000100010 11011001110 0111110101100 Message/ber retrieved with Verterbi_link_cont1 ber = 0.1750 Message/ber retrieved with Vitdec ber = 0.2000 As the errors in bits increases bit error rate also increases. Appendix A Matlab Code %*********************************************************************************** %** CONVOLUTIONAL ENCODING TRELLIS DIAGRAM IMPLEMENTATION %************************************************************************************ function [code]= Conv_Enc(message1) % K=3 Length of Shift Register % # of states = 2^(K-1) = 4 % State can be considered as first two or last two bits of the shift register % 1/n Convolutional Encoder, Rate = 1/2 % n= length of generated codeword for i=1:length(message1) message(i)= num2str(message1(i)); end state=00; next_state=00; code1=[]; message=[message 00]; message=[message]; for t=1:length(message) inp= message(t); state=next_state; if(state==00) if(inp==0) next_state=00; outp=00; else next_state=10; outp= 11; end elseif(state==10) if(inp==0) next_state=01; outp=10; else next_state=11; outp= 01; end elseif(state==01) if(inp==0) next_state=00; outp=11; else next_state=10; outp= 00; end elseif(state==11) if(inp==0) next_state=01; outp=01; else next_state=11; outp= 10; end end code1= [code1 outp]; end for i=1:length(code1) code(i)= str2num(code1(i)); end % code=code1; %*********************************************************************************** %***************** DECODER IMPLEMENTATION*********************** %************************************************************************************ function [messa

Three Styles of Learning Essay -- Personal Perspectives Education Essa

Three Styles of Learning If a survey was being done on how people learn one would immediately notice that no two answers would be the same. People from all walks of life and culture would answer that they learn better a certain way. The way a person learns is something that is different for every individual. I, myself, learn in a couple of different ways depending on the situation and what the learning experience calls for. The three styles of learning that I will examine and give my perspective on are online resources, learning teams, and problem based learning. These three type of learning techniques or strategies can teach to optimize the learning ability. There are many different resources to use in learning when trying to achieve the most out of your education. The tools provide by the institution that you attend along with knowledge base resources will provide you with most that is needed for any project. The University of Phoenix, along with its’ instructors have put together an outstanding set of learning resource tools. The resources I will give my personal perspective on are the value of having rEsourceSM available to you throughout the program, the value of learning teams, and the value of problem-based learning. The Value of rEsource The value that rEsources will have on my studies throughout my MBA curriculum will be exceptional. I know that to have these resources available to me online is state of the art and will make it that much easier for me to...

Why Sony Failed?

Why Sony fail? When I read â€Å"Leading Change Why Transformation Efforts Fail†, I directly linked Sony with the transformation fail. Sony, the previous electrical giant, announced a record annual net loss of $6. 4 billion for fiscal year 2011 in May 22 2012. This marks the fourth consecutive year that Sony reported substantial losses. Transformation efforts couldn’t turnaround the bad situation of Sony due to the mistakes that made by Sony in those transformation.First, Sony did not establishing a great enough sense of urgency. Sony began its diversification strategy in 1980s. By 1990’s, Sony shaped game, electric, picture, and finance four main businesses. By that time, some potential crisis began to emerge. However, all of these risks were hidden by excellent annual reports. Even when Sony confronted â€Å"Sony Shock† in 2003, leaders of Sony couldn’t realize its development dilemma and prepare to transform.Until 2005, continued losses pushed So ny to review its strategy and re-appointed Sir Howard Stringer as CEO. Sony had lost a lot of opportunities, such as LCD TV. Post core business of Sony, electrical manufacture, Second, Sony lacked a clear version. As a high technological company, innovation decided the fate of Sony. However, Sony made a fetish of its brand recognition and marketing power, and ignored the importance of innovation. The last great innovation of Sony is CD, which was launched in 1982.Even when Sony reintroduced innovation as its basic strategy, there was no direct process to commit the strategy, and the strategy just became an empty slogan. Even today, Sony cannot have a leading technology in its areas. Now, Sony appointed a new CEO, who emphasized the importance of innovation for Sony. There isn’t enough time left to the new CEO, and maybe Sony will die in future several years. Hiroko Tabuchi First Published: Mon, Apr 16 2012. 06 26 PM IST How Sony failed to keep up with the tech revolution

No Cloning! essays

No Cloning! essays On February 24, 1997, the world was shocked and fascinated by the announcement of Ian Wilmut and his colleagues. A press release stated that they had successfully cloned a sheep from a single cell of an adult sheep. Since then, cloning has become one of the most controversial and widely discussed topics. The issue that gets the greatest focus is human cloning, and there has been an onslaught of protests and people lobbying for a ban on it. However, there is a real danger that prohibitions on cloning will open the door to inappropriate restrictions on accepted medical and genetic practices. Therefore, the banning of cloning is unjust. The most popular objection to human cloning is the assumption that science would be playing God if it were to create human clones. This argument refuses to accept the advantage of biological processes and to view the changes of the world. Religious objections were once raised at the prospects of autopsies, anesthesia, artificial insemination, organ trans plants, and other acts that seemed to be tampering with divine will. Yet enormous benefits have been gathered by each of these innovations, and they have become a part of human ¡s daily life. The issue of playing God has already arisen when a doctor selects a patient on a waiting list for transplant and leaves others to die, and when the doctor puts their patient under life support whenever they are in coma or they are near death. The moral issue of cloning is similar to the past issue faced by the society such as nuclear energy, recombinant DNA, and the computer encryption. There have always been religious and moral objections to new technologies and changes merely because they are different and unknown to humans. The public not only worries about science playing God, but also fears that the cloned child ¡s autonomy and individuality will be reduced because it will have the same DNA as another person. One of the more eloquently stated fears about the loss ...

Wal-Mart and Target Essay Example

Wal Wal-Mart and Target Essay Wal-Mart and Target Essay SIC codes can be used to bring together companies that produce similar products or services. Wal-Mart and Target are part of SIC Code 5331 for Variety Stores along with other major companies like Costco, K-Mart, and Dollar General (Osha. gov, 2005). The Arkansas-based Wal-Mart tops the list as the nations largest retailer with 2003 sales of $258. 68 billion, an 11. 7 percent increase over the previous year (Melody Vargas, 2005). A financial statement includes a companys revenue. Typically the revenue listed in the financial statement covers a period of 12 consecutive months. Cost and expenses, which indicate a companys cost of sales, operating, selling and administrative costs. Assets are also listed in a financial statement. The assets provide more information about the value of the property the company owns. For example, the cash on hand the company has property, plant and equipment, prepaid expenses. Wal-Marts Audit Committee consists of four directors. The members of the Committee are Steve Friedman, Roland Hernandez, who is the Committees chair, Dr. Fred Humphries and Dr. Paula Stern (Issue watch, 2001). Wal-Marts management is responsible for Wal-Marts internal controls and financial reporting. Ernst Young LLP, Wal-Marts independent auditors, are responsible for auditing Wal-Marts annual consolidated financial statements in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards and for issuing a report on those financial statements (Issue watch, 2001). The Audit Committee monitors and oversees these processes, and recommends to the Board for its approval a firm of certified independent accountants to be Wal-Marts independent auditors (Issue watch, 2001). According to Targets 2004 annual financial statement, management is responsible for the consistency and integrity of the information in the annual report. Target claims to maintain comprehensive systems of internal controls that they believe provide reasonable assurance (Target. com, 2005). Targets financial statements have been audited by Earnest and Young LLP, an independent public accounting firm (Target. com, 2005) Wal-Mart and Target can be compared on various similarities but there are definitely some distinctive differences. Stock information is one differentiation between the two. According to Market watch Target Corporation today has reported that the companys net sales increased 11. 4%. This increase is shown in their revenue increase from 3. 866 billion to 4. 306 billion. Target retail store sales increased 5. 6%. In comparison Wal-Mart experienced an increase as well. According to second quarter reporting there was a 2. 8 billion dollar increase for the second quarter 2005. Net sales for 2005 were 76. 8 billion with a 10. 2 % increase. Wal-Mart CEO and President stated, I am proud that the hard work of our associates allowed us to report another record quarter (Marketwatch. com). The dividends declared per common share ranged over a period of 3 three-month quarters from $0. 09 to $ 0. 52. The footnotes indicated during the first quarter of fiscal 2005, the companys board of directors declared an annual dividend of $0. 52 per share, or $2. 2 billion, on shares of the companys common stock (Edgar Online, 2005). NYSE is the stock index on which both companies are traded on. They can be identified on the stock exchange be there stock ticker symbols. Target is TGT, and Wal-Mart is reported as WMT. Both companies have experienced and increase in stock prices. Currently Target is 52. 55, with a daily high of 52. 85 and a low of 52. 25. The stock opened on 11 October at 52. 22. Target stock prices have risen . 33 cents or 0. 63%. Wal-Mart is marketed at 45. 25 also having a daily high of 45. 20 and low of 44. 55. Wal-Mart current stock price is now up about . 51 cents or, 1. 2 %. Both companies have been able to provide dividends to their shareholders. Wal-Mart and Target show similarities in that each of them reflected in their financial statements that they both have common, preferred and treasury stocks. According to the stock quote listed at Investorsguide. com, Wal-Mart currently has $4. 15 billion outstanding shares of common stock. The 2005 Annual Report for Wal-Mart Stores indicates that after considerations were primarily given to the companys cash needs, cost of borrowing, and the market price of its stock, $4. 5 billion of common stock was repurchased by the company during fiscal 2005. As of October 10, 2005, Target Corporations outstanding stock is $884. 66 million (Investorsguide. com, 2005). In January 2005, Target authorized 6,000,000,000 common stock shares and 5,000,000 preferred stock shares, although at the time, none of the preferred stock shares were issued or outstanding, and no current information was available from this source (investors. target. com). Targets Board of Directors also initiated a repurchase plan of $3 billion of common stock back in June of 2004. With so much negative publicity it is not unlikely that Wal-Mart stock would not be doing extremely well. It seems as though Wal-Marts stock continues to decline while Target is on the incline with Wal-Marts 52 week high at 57. 89 which was on November 15,2004 and the 52 week low at 42. 31 on September 22,2005. On the contrary Targets 52 week high is at 60. 00,their high was recent on July 20,2005, with the 52 week low being at 45. 55 on April 29,2005. After conducting brief examinations of each companys financial standings, there were no indications of outstanding bonds for either company. Based on the information provided and reflected in the preceding paragraphs, it is concluded that both of these companys are definitely doing big business. Whether the consumer decides to shop Target or Wal-Mart is a matter of preference. Wal-Mart prides itself on one stop shopping with the super Wal-Mart offering everything from groceries to car tires. Target on the other hand draws thousands of customers weekly and still remains a force to be recognized in the specialty retail arena. Each company has an impressive financial report and would likely make a good investment option.

Project management Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Project management - Coursework Example An estimate of the project baseline includes a construction of about 29 miles of the express lanes. The construction cost of the project estimated to approximately $950 million, comprising of the labor and material costs. The project is to help in moving more people with fewer cars, thereby giving more transportation choices that assist in saving time, money, and improves on the environment. In accord, the project anticipated to support approximately 8,000 jobs during the construction period and in return, stimulate to about $2 billion in the state economy. The project baseline estimated to extend the nine miles of the existing lanes that alleviate one of the region’s worst traffic backups. The expansion of the lanes also comprises of the addition and an expansion of the commuter parking lot (Haynes & LearnKey, 2010). The cost baseline of the project in building the 495 express lanes downsized as follows. The project estimated and budgeted for a cost of $950 million, where 95 Express provides $860 million in funding (Project, 2014). The amount comprises of the anticipated TIFIA loan that is $310 million that is expected to be available in October 2015. The VDOT will provide an amount of $ 75 million in public funds, being a lower value than an original estimate of about $90, as a result to the lower than expected costs at the closing. The tolls projected to be collected electronically by the use of the E-ZPass therefore eliminating the need of the tollbooths. The period of the project execution estimated to about two years, having a direct impact on the approximated cost of the task. Ensuring a good communication in a project might be a challenging task, especially to the project manager. Communication not only enables everyone to keep up-to-date on the project progress, it also facilitates the buy-in and the ownership of the major project milestones and decisions. Therefore, a project manager has to ensure the

Korean Cultural Consideration of Death and Dying Essay

Korean Cultural Consideration of Death and Dying - Essay Example Most cultures hold the belief that the dying process is never rosy. This being the case, people should be aware that individuals do not need to undergo a lot of pain and suffering only due to cultural beliefs. The paper will explore Korean cultural approaches to death and dying. In particular, the paper will explain unique concepts with regard to the culture in relation to death and dying. It will also look at how the Korean Culture presents death and dying rituals, and the similarities and differences between that culture and American culture. Korean Approaches to death and dying The Asian Health Support Service (2004) notes that customs pertaining to death and dying are much dependent on a person’s age, religion, marital status, manner of death, status in the society and area of residence. These factors greatly affect the manner in which the Koreans perceive death and dying. They perform certain cultural rituals as a way of giving the bereaved an opportunity to abide by the set obligations of the deceased person (Asian Health Support Service). The Koreans have very strong family ties especially when one of the family members is sick. In this case, when one is admitted to the hospital, he receives many visitors who provide them with encouragement and consolation. At the time of being in the hospital, the patient is expected to have somebody by his or her side until the patient is ready to be discharged. In case the condition of the patient gets worse, the community prefers that the patient is discharged before his death so that he/she can be taken back home alive. It is also worth noting that the culture does not prefer a patient being admitted in a nursing home for care (Schwartz, 1997). This is because traditionally, the culture reveres dying at home so as to avoid the dead transforming into a kaekkwi (evil spirit). In this respect, members of the family make every attempt to ensure that any sick person is taken back home before he/she dies irrespecti ve of whether or not the patient is receiving treatment in hospital. The Korean people believe that it is a misfortune to bring a dying patient’s body home. However, doing so before his/her death is a sign of respect, as noted by the Asian Health Support Services (2004). For a long time, this belief was so engraved in the people’s culture to an extent that disobeying it was disrespectful to the deceased and the bereaved family. It is, however, worth noting that within the contemporary setting, the custom is dying off. The Asian Health Support Services (2004) notes that the Koreans’ way of thinking and cultural beliefs are changing drastically, and many hospitals in Korea have rooms established to shelter bereaved families. Some rooms are also specially established for holding funerals for the grieving families. This is one way by which the Korean government and hospitals are ensuring that cultural beliefs of the people do not lead to preventable deaths. The pati ents in this respect continue receiving specialized treatment up to the time of death. Koreans Present Death and Dying Rituals Koreans present their death rituals in a unique way in line with their culture and customs. Crying and wailing is also a part of the death rituals among the Korean people (Kim & Loyola University Chicago, 2008). When one dies, family members flock the home of the deceased crying to